![]() ![]() Petal trichomes may form clusters visible as a contrasting palate and signal the pathway to the reward (e. In many Linaria species, corolla and calyx are covered with trichomes-glandular and/or non-glandular (Segarra and Mateu 2001 Saez and Crespo 2005). 2015).įloral trichomes-hair-like epidermal structures-have been considered to play a role in plant-pollinator relations, e.g., signaling the pathway to the reward (Owen and Bradshaw 2011). From the plant point of view, the floral shape and size, flower arrangements, color, and/or odor are important for advertisement of rewarding flowers ready for pollination (Fernández-Mazuecos et al. The plant-insect interactions are based on diverse signals perceived by insects, which have to learn to use different sensory channels to make the food search effective (Renner 2006). 2013).įlower specialization is a result of co-evolution between plants and specialized pollinators (Cacho et al. Specific flower visitors are especially sensitive to changes in pollinating fauna induced by habitat types, i.e., functional group of insect to plant species can differ greatly between urban and suburban environments compared to semi-natural and agricultural ones (Geslin et al. Specialized flowers are however also visited by insect that do not fit “pollination syndrome” and pollinator composition may differ considerably between populations (even located closely to one another) (Nepi et al. Such flowers are traditionally viewed as highly specialized (Stebbins 1970). vulgaris are zygomorphic, deeply spurred, with closed access to the corolla throat (Fernández-Mazuecos et al. vulgaris is considered to be an obligate outcrosser and evolved several adaptations towards attracting insects, e.g., well-noticeable flowers (Stout et al. ![]() vulgaris populations is due to efficient vegetative reproduction the main stem is capable of forming up to 100 secondary shoots and surviving up to 4 years (Newman and Thomson 2005a). The species occurs both in cultivated and uncultivated areas, but grows especially vigorously in disturbed habitats (Ward et al. ![]() vulgaris is now considered as an invasive species in the USA and in Canada (Sing and Peterson 2011). However, it has also been successfully introduced to North America, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa (CABI datasheet). The species is native to temperate regions of Eurasia. Linaria vulgaris (L.) Mill., a perennial herb, belongs to the family Scrophulariaceae, according to classic taxonomy systems (Cronquist 1981) or Plantaginaceae, according to the modern phylogeny system APG IV (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group). In the urban site, Bombus terrestris and Apis mellifera were the most common visitors, while a considerable number of visits of wasps and syrphid flies were noted in the rural site. vulgaris differed significantly between populations. The spectrum of insect visitors in the flowers of L. Pollen production was variable between the years of the study. Both the nectar amount and sugar concentration demonstrated a significant year and population effect. The concentration of sugars in the nectar reached up to 57.0%. The amount of produced nectar depended on the flower age and ranged from 0.21 to 3.95 mg/flower (mean = 1.51 mg). Nectar secretion began in the bud stage and lasted to the end of anthesis. Nectar is secreted through numerous modified stomata. The nectary gland is disc-shaped and located at the base of the ovary. Histochemical tests revealed that the floral glandular trichomes produced essential oils and flavonoids, and pollen grains contained flavonoids, terpenoids, and steroids, which play a role of olfactory attractants/repellents. These adaptive traits include the flower size and symmetry, the presence of a spur as a “secondary nectar presenter,” olfactory (secondary metabolites) and sensual (scent, flower color, nectar guide-contrasting palate) signals, and floral rewards, i.e. The self-incompatible flowers of Linaria vulgaris have developed a range of mechanisms for attraction of insect visitors/pollinators and deterrence of ineffective pollinators and herbivores. ![]()
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